1. THE EARLY MODERN AGE
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The Early Modern Age began in 1453 with the Fall of Constantinople and ended with the French Revolution in 1789. However, by the end of the previous era, many important social, economic, political and cultural changes were already taking place.
1.1. Economic transformation
From the mid-fifteenth century onwards, following the economic crisis and catastrophes that occurred at the end of the Middle Ages, European societies began to experience a recovery. This was reflected in the following:
Increased agricultural production : in this period there was an increase in the amount of land under cultivation. However, there were no technological advances at this time and the three-field system was maintained. This system consisted of dividing the area of cultivated land into three sections and rotating the crops each year. One section was left fallow (uncultivated) for the land to rest and recover the nutrients. The main crops were cereals . Agriculture and livestock farming continued to be the main source of economic activity. As a result, societies at this time were very vulnerable: during the years of bad crops, hunger and disease reappeared.
Intensified commercial activity : the increase in agricultural production resulted in a surplus in production, that is, an excess of food produced. The surplus products were sold in the city markets . Merchants or traders travelled in search of new markets, establishing trade routes over land and sea that connected distant places.
The expansion of craftsmanship: products were made in workshops, which were controlled by associations of craftsmen called guilds .
Traders’ stalls in a medieval city. Illustration from a French manuscript from the 15th century.
To meet growing demand, products were also made in people's homes and the domestic system was created. Merchants provided the families with the tools and raw materials to make the products.
Due to the voyages of exploration to new lands, new products were brought to Europe. These included precious metals, foods and spices.
The development of mercantile capitalism: an economic system in which capital (money, raw materials, tools, workshops...) belonged to private owners, generally members of the bourgeoisie (middle class), that created trading companies to generate profits.
THE EARLY MODERN AGE
Economic growth resulted in the development of banking . Bankers started changing money and looking after the money and precious metals of their clients. With large funds available, they were able to increase the range of services they offered. For example:
The Moneylender and His Wife, Quentin Massys
Providing loans : merchants needed money to begin new commercial activities. The bankers lent money in exchange for returning the same amount plus an additional amount, called interest. Traders in this period made large profits, so they could pay their loans back and the bankers became rich. The monarchs at the time also asked the banks for loans to cover the costs of running their states. The Medici in Florence and the Fugger family in Germany were among the most important banking families. Banking played a vital role in the new system, known as mercantile capitalism, by financing the trading companies.
Creating new forms of payment: the bill of exchange was created. This was a document which guaranteed that the banker would pay a merchant, or another authorised person, a quantity of money, on a specified date and at a specified place. With the bill of exchange it was no longer necessary to travel with cash, which was unsafe.
1.2. Social change
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Economic prosperity resulted in an increase in the population and a reduction in the number of big epidemics. Cities grew, especially those on trade routes or with important ports, such as Venice, Paris, London, Cologne, Lisbon and Antwerp.
As well as the rural society that developed in the Middle Ages, an urban society developed. This became one of the defining characteristics of the Early Modern Age.
Society continued to be divided into different social groups called classes , as it was in the Middle Ages.
The priviledged class consisted of the nobility and the clergy . They were a minority, but owned most of the land. They were the only ones who had access to high political positions. They had numerous privileges : they didn´t pay taxes, and they were judged by special tribunals. They lived in their castles in the countryside or in palaces in the city.
The unprivileged class , also called commoners , consisted of the majority of the population. They paid numerous taxes and did not have access to high political positions. This group was divided into various sub-groups:
The peasants continued to form the largest group. They were serfs of the feudal lord or noble. They had to pay them rent or a part of their harvest. For this reason, many of them went to the cities where they had more freedom.
The bourgeoisie were the city inhabitants. They were not ruled by a feudal lord. This social group increased in number, became wealthier and gained more political influence during the Early Modern Age. There were significant differences within this group:
– The upper bourgeoisie were important merchants, bankers and officials. They lived in richly decorated urban palaces. Together with the city nobles, they formed the ruling class, the most powerful and influential group.
– The petite bourgeoisie were small merchants, less important officials, all types of artisans, artists, servants and labourers. They formed the largest group in the cities. They lived in humble houses in buildings with several floors.
There was also a marginalised social group that consisted of beggar and vagabonds that lived on charity.
Some social groups protested for their rights. The most violent protests were carried out by the peasants. However, these revolts were severely suppressed .
Some of the upper bourgeoisie became wealthier than the nobles themselves. As a result, families from the nobility began marrying into the richest families of the bourgeoisie.
In turn, the bourgeoisie demanded an end to the privileges enjoyed by the nobility and the clergy and not to pay so many taxes and have access to all political positions.
The monarchs supported either the bourgeoisie or the nobility, depending on their own interests. The bourgeoisie gradually gained more rights, but did not reach the same level as the nobility until the end of the Early Modern Age.